A bit of history for today...

Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II

2009-02-19T12:10:00.002Z

On 2^nd June 1953, the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II took place, and the whole country joined in celebration.

The only problem on the actual day was the typical British weather…it poured with rain!

But that didn’t stop people all over the country holding parties in the decorated streets of their towns and cities, and in London the roads were packed with people waiting to see the processions that took place.

The massed London crowds refused to be down-hearted by the weather, and most of them had spent the night before on the crowded pavements, waiting for this special day to begin.

And for the first time ever, the ordinary people of Britain were going to be able to watch a Monarch’s Coronation in their own homes. It was announced earlier in the year that the crowning of the queen would be televised, and the sales of TV. sets rocketed.

Apparently there had been much controversy in the Government as to whether it would be ‘right and proper’ to televise such a solemn occasion. Several members of the Cabinet at the time, Sir Winston Churchill was one, urged the queen to spare herself the strain of the heat and glare of the cameras, by refusing to have the ceremony televised.

The queen received this message coldly, and refused to listen to their protests. The young queen personally routed the Earl Marshall, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Sir Winston Churchill and the Cabinet …she had made her decision!

Her motivation was clear, nothing must stand between her crowning, and her people’s right to participate.

So, on June 2^nd 1953 at 11 o’clock all over the country people settled down in front of their television sets. These sets were, compared to the present day ones, quite primitive. The pictures were black and white, as colour-sets were not available then, and the tiny 14-inch screen was the most popular size.

The queen arrived at Westminster Abbey looking radiant, but there was a problem in the Abbey. The carpet!

The carpet in the Abbey had been laid with pile running the wrong way, which meant that the queen’s robes had trouble gliding easily over the carpet pile. The metal fringe on the queen’s golden mantel caught in the pile of the carpet, and clawed her back when she tried to move forward. The queen had to tell the Archbishop of Canterbury, ‘Get me started’.

Another problem was that the holy oil, with which the queen was to be anointed at the ceremony, and which had been used at her father’s Coronation, had been destroyed during a WW II bombing raid, and the firm who made it had gone out of business.

But fortunately, an elderly relative of the firm had kept a few ounces of the original base, and a new batch was quickly made-up.

The ‘Crowning Ceremony’ took place exactly as it is laid down in the history books, and when St. Edward’s Crown, (this crown is only ever used for the actual crowning) was placed on her head the whole country, watching on their television sets, joined as one in celebration.

So, in spite of the rain, the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II was certainly a day to remember …’God save the Queen’.

(thanks to historic-uk.com for the article)

visit http://www.historic-uk.com/index.shtml for more like it

Who is...Arthur Scargill (1938-)?

2008-10-04T10:26:00.003+01:00

British trade‐union leader. Elected president of the National Union of Miners (NUM) in 1981, he embarked on a collision course with the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher. The damaging strike of 1984–85 split the miners' movement. In 1995, criticizing what he saw as the Labour Party's lurch to the right, he announced that he would establish a rival party, the independent Socialist Labour Party. This proved to be largely ineffectual, and made little impact in consequent elections. By 1997 membership of the NUM had fallen to 10,000.

Born in Leeds, Scargill became a miner on leaving school and was soon a trade‐union and political activist, in the Young Communist League 1955–62, and then in the Labour Party from 1966. President of the Yorkshire miners' union 1973–81, he became a fiery and effective orator. During the 1984–85 miners' strike he was criticized for not seeking an early NUM ballot to support the strike decision. He was a member of the TUC General Council 1986–88 and formed the Socialist Labour Party in 1996.

The Great Fire of London 1666

2008-09-20T23:10:00.003+01:00

I apologise sincerely that there have not been many posts lately but I shall get back to original postings before long. Due to a lack of time this evening this synopsis has been taken from a very good encyclopedic site that I would recommend, if at any rate you are looking for the bare facts of a topic:

http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/greatfire.htm

The Great Fire of London began on the night of September 2, 1666, as a small fire on Pudding Lane, in the bakeshop of Thomas Farynor, baker to King Charles II. At one o'clock in the morning, a servant woke to find the house aflame, and the baker and his family escaped, but a fear-struck maid perished in the blaze.

At this time, most London houses were of wood and pitch construction, dangerously flammable, and it did not take long for the fire to expand. The fire leapt to the hay and feed piles on the yard of the Star Inn at Fish Street Hill, and spread to the Inn. The strong wind that blew that night sent sparks that next ignited the Church of St. Margaret, and then spread to Thames Street, with its riverside warehouses and wharves filled with food for the flames: hemp, oil, tallow, hay, timber, coal and spirits along with other combustibles. The citizen firefighting brigades had little success in containing the fire with their buckets of water from the river. By eight o'clock in the morning, the fire had spread halfway across London Bridge. The only thing that stopped the fire from spreading to Southwark, on the other side of the river, was the gap that had been caused by the fire of 1633.

The standard procedure to stop a fire from spreading had always been to destroy the houses on the path of the flames, creating “fire-breaks”, to deprive a fire from fuel. Lord Mayor Bludworth, however, was hesitant, worrying about the cost of rebuilding. By the time a Royal command came down, carried by Samuel Pepys, the fire was too out of control to stop. The Trained Bands of London were called in to demolish houses by gunpowder, but often the rubble was too much to be cleared before the fire was at hand, and only eased the fire's way onward. The fire blazed unchecked for another three days, until it halted near Temple Church. Then, it suddenly sprang to life again, continuing towards Westminster. The Duke of York (later King James II) had the presence of mind to order the Paper House demolished to create a fire break, and the fire finally died down.

From The Times History of London. London: Times Books, 1999. Courtesy of The Millwall History Files website.

Although the loss of life was minimal, some sources say only sixteen perished, the magnitude of the property loss was staggering. Some 430 acres, as much as 80% of the city proper was destroyed, including 13,000 houses, 89 churches, and 52 Guild Halls. Thousands of citizens found themselves homeless and financially ruined.The Great Fire, and the fire of 1676, which destroyed over 600 houses south of the river, changed the face of London forever. The one positive effect of the Great Fire was that the plague, which had ravished London since 1665, diminished greatly, due to the mass death of the plague-carrying rats in the blaze.

Charles II appointed six Commissioners to redesign the city. The plan provided for wider streets and buildings of brick, rather than timber. By 1671, 9000 houses and public buildings had been completed. Sir Christopher Wren was commissioned to design and oversee the construction of nearly 50 churches, not least of them a new St. Paul's Cathedral, construction of which began in 1675. The King also had Wren design a monument to the Great Fire, which stands still today at the site of the bakery which started it all, on a street now named Monument Street.

List of...British Prime Ministers since 1721

2008-09-14T21:35:00.005+01:00

2007 Gordon Brown	Labour
1997 Tony Blair	Labour
1990 John Major	Conservative
1979 Margaret Thatcher	Conservative
1976 James Callaghan	Labour
1974 Harold Wilson	Labour
1970 Edward Heath	Conservative
1964 Harold Wilson	Labour
1963 Sir Alec Douglas-Home	Conservative
1957 Harold Macmillan	Conservative
1955 Sir Anthony Eden	Conservative
1951 Winston Churchill	Conservative
1945 Clement Attlee	Labour
1940 Winston Churchill	Conservative (Coalition Government)
1937 Neville Chamberlain	Conservative (National Government)
1935 Stanley Baldwin	Conservative (National Government)
1931 James Ramsay MacDonald	National Labour (National Government)
1929 James Ramsay MacDonald	Labour
1924 Stanley Baldwin	Conservative
1924 James Ramsay MacDonald	Labour
1923 Stanley Baldwin	Conservative
1922 Andrew Bonar Law	Conservative
1916 David Lloyd George	Liberal (Coalition Government)
1908 Herbert H. Asquith	Liberal (Coalition Government, 1915)
1905 Henry Campbell-Bannerman	Liberal
1902 Arthur Balfour	Conservative
1895 Marquess of Salisbury	Conservative
1894 Earl of Rosebery	Liberal
1892 William Ewart Gladstone	Liberal
1886 Marquess of Salisbury	Conservative
1886 William Ewart Gladstone	Liberal
1885 Marquess of Salisbury	Conservative
1880 William Ewart Gladstone	Liberal
1874 Benjamin Disraeli	Conservative
1868 William Ewart Gladstone	Liberal
1868 Benjamin Disraeli	Conservative
1866 Edward Stanley, Earl of Derby	Conservative
1865 John Russell, Earl Russell	Liberal
1858 Viscount Palmerston	Liberal
1858 Edward Stanley, Earl of Derby	Conservative
1855 Viscount Palmerston	Liberal
1852 George Hamilton-Gordon, Earl of Aberdeen	Conservative
1852 Edward Stanley, Earl of Derby	Conservative
1846 Lord John Russell	Whig
1841 Sir Robert Peel	Tory
1835 William Lamb, Viscount Melbourne	Whig
1834 Sir Robert Peel	Tory
1834 Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington	Tory
1834 William Lamb, Viscount Melbourne	Whig
1830 Charles Grey, Earl Grey	Whig
1828 Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington	Tory
1827 Frederick Robinson, Viscount Goderich	Tory
1827 George Canning	Tory
1812 Robert Jenkinson, Earl of Liverpool	Tory
1809 Spencer Perceval	Tory
1807 William Bentinck, Duke of Portland	Tory
1806 William Grenville, Lord Grenville	Whig
1804 William Pitt, the Younger	Tory
1801 Henry Addington	Tory
1783 William Pitt, the Younger	Tory
1783 William Bentinck, Duke of Portland	Tory
1782 William FitzMaurice, Earl of Shelburne	Whig
1782 Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquess of Rockingham	Whig
1770 Frederick North, Lord North	Tory
1767 Augustus Fitzroy, Duke of Grafton	Whig
1766 William Pitt the Elder, Earl of Chatham	Whig
1765 Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquess of Rockingham	Whig
1763 George Grenville	Whig
1762 John Stuart, Earl of Bute	Tory
1757 Thomas Pelham-Holles, Duke of Newcastle	Whig
1756 William Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire	Whig
1754 Thomas Pelham-Holles, Duke of Newcastle	Whig
1743 Henry Pelham	Whig
1742 Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington	Whig
1721 Sir Robert Walpole	Whig

A history of North Korea

2008-09-11T20:06:00.004+01:00

Korea's history is one of settlement, one of being controlled and one of disagreement. Up until the 17th century, Korea was one single independent state acting on its own behalf for its own people. However, in the mid 17th Century, Korea became a vassal state of China and was cut off from external contact up until the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895. Following Japan's victory, Korea was once again granted independence. However, by 1910 Korea had been annexed by Japan and despite a contant wave of nationalist pressure, this control was not to cease until Japan's defeat in WWII. Korea was divided in two at the 38th Parallel. The USSR controlled the North and the USA the South. In 1948 division was made permanent. The state of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) was created on May 1st 1948 with Kim Il Sung as president.

Hoping to unify the peninsular under their rule, the North launched a surprise attack on the south on June 25th 1950. The UN Security Council condemned the attack and ordered an immediate withdrawal. President Truman of the States immediately sent US air and naval units to enforce the condemnation. The British followed, as did the UN.

The North Korean invaders swiftly seized Seoul and surrounded the allied forces in the peninsula's southeast corner near Pusan. In a desperate bid to reverse the military situation, UN Commander Gen. Douglas MacArthur ordered an amphibious landing at Inchon on Sept. 15 and routed the North Korean army. MacArthur's forces pushed north across the 38th parallel, approaching the Yalu River. This forced China into the war on the side of the North forcing the UN south. Seoul was lost by the South and then regained. The war drew to a halt but continued for another two years. A ceasefire was called on July 27th 1953.

Kim Il Sung died on July 8th 1994 and his son, Kim Jong Il assumed the leadership. Following bitter battles of words with the West over a presumed nuclear arsenal, trouble struck in 1998/99 as famine struck the nation. Due to severe floods and then droughts, only 10% of rice fields could be farmed. The famine claimed 2-3 million lives. The hunger continued into the 21st century. Those who tried to escape and were caught, faced torture or execution.

North Korea is supposed to have one of the worst human rights situations in the world. There isn't any freedom of expression or movement and the press is tightly controlled. Some prison camps can hold over 200,000 prisoners and it is thought that they are often full to the brim with protestors to the regime.

In Septemeber 1998 N. Korea launched a test missile over Japan, claiming it was a scientific sattellite and this rose tensions with the Japanese. Kim Lung Il allowed the US to send inspectors into the country in return for food aid by bringing potato production the country.

Tension with South Korea eased dramatically in June 2000, when South Korea's president, Kim Dae Jung, met with North Korea's President Kim Jong Il in Pyongyang. The summit marked the first-ever meeting of the two countries' leaders. But efforts toward reconciliation fizzled thereafter.

In late December 2002, North Korea expelled UN weapons inspectors from the country, and in January 2003 it announced it was officially withdrawing from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In July, North Korean officials reported that the country had reprocessed enough plutonium to build six nuclear bombs. In July 2006, North Korea launched seven missiles—the long-range Taepodong-2 missile (which failed) and six medium-range ones—roiling its neighbors and much of the rest of the world. It was North Korea's first major weapons test in eight years. North Korea again sparked international outrage in October, when it tested a nuclear weapon. President Bush called the test a “threat to international peace and security” and called for sanctions against North Korea.

A breakthrough was finally reached in February 2007, when North Korea agreed to dismantle its nuclear facilities and allow international inspectors to enter the country in exchange for about $400 million in oil and aid. In July, the country followed up on the February agreement, shutting down its weapons-making nuclear reactor at Yongbyon. Inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency verified the move. North Korea went a step further in October, announcing it would disable its nuclear facilities and disclose to international monitors an accounting of all of its nuclear programs by the end of 2007. It failed, however, to make the disclosure.

In April 2007, parliament fired Prime Minister Hong Song Nam and named former army and navy minister Kim Yong-Il as his successor.

For the first time in 56 years, trains passed between North and South Korea in May 2007. While the event was mostly symbolic, it was considered an important step toward reconciliation. South Korea hopes that eventually a trans-Korean railroad will provide easier access to other parts of Asia. Given North Korea's failing infrastructure, such a railroad, however, is years away from becoming a reality.

In October 2007, Kim Jong Il and South Korean president Roh Moo Hyun met for their second ever inter-Korean summit. The leaders forged a deal to work together on several economic projects and agreed to move toward signing a treaty that would formally end the Korean War.

The New York Philharmonic played a concert in Pyongyang in February 2008. It was the first time an American cultural group performed in the country and the largest American delegation to visit North Korea since the Korean War. The orchestra played pieces by Dvorak, Gershwin, and Wagner, as well as the "Star-Spangled Banner" and a traditional Korean folk song.

Where do we see the future? Will North and South ever be united once again? Times are changing but I fear it will be a long while, certainly not in my lifetime I doubt, before Korea unites under one flag once again.

Aethelstan - the first true King of Britain?

2008-09-10T12:09:00.005+01:00

Chosen by the Mercians Aethelstan was crowned King of England at Kingston in September 925. He was one of the most accomplished early English monarchs. Upon being crowned, Aethelstan quickly set about consolidating his Kingdom. He signed a treaty of alliance with King Sigtrygg of York in the year 926, but this was to collapse under the death of Sigtrygg the following year. Aethelstan was forced to move north to reassert his influence over York. He moved with a mighty army across York and Northumbria, expelling the King there, Olaf Sigtryggson. He then signed a treaty of peace with the Scottish monarchs, the Treaty of Penrith, which ended the conflicts of the past decade. At this same time Kings Hywell Dda of Deheubarth and Owain of Glwysing and Gwent granted Aethelstan overlordship of Hereford, retreating the Welsh border to the river Wye. The Welsh monarchs were also happy with Aethelstan's rule and submitted to him at court.

However, despite becoming one of the most powerful Lings Britain had ever seen, it seems that the region of Wessex was still unhappy with the leadership of Aethelstan. The last King's only legitimate son, who had been based in Wessex, had been overlooked upon the succession of the monarchy. Wessex plotted to have him blinded at Winchester and replace him with his brother, Edwin. It is unclear whether the plot was discovered or simply failed. However, in AD 933, Wessex seems to have broken out into open revolt as there were reported to be 'severe disturbances' in the region. Aethelstan was able to draw Edwin and his forces abroad where he was to die at sea.

Constantine II of the Scots took this opportunity to roust Aethelstan from the north while he was distracted down south. He broke their 7 year peace deal and attacked. Aethelstan quickly lauched a massive attack up to the northern borders and beyond and was able to persuade the Welsh Kings to aid him in this campaign. They managed to get as far as Dunottar (near present day Aberdeen), while the naval forces sailed to Caithness. In AD 937 Constantine retaliated by forming a powerful alliance with King Owen of Strathclyde and King Olaf of Dublin. A great army of Scots, Picts and Norse marched south but Aethelstan was ready for them and soundly defeated the forces at the Battle of Brunanburgh. Aethelstan now became, in effect, overlord of all Britain and Ireland, a feat that no other early English King had succeeded in doing. Foreign courtiers flocked to the King which left him with many contacts abroad, even more than his grandfather, Alfred the Great. He married off four of his half-sisters to continental nobles including a German Emperor and a Frankish King.

Aethelstan was a highly religious man who patronised a number of Wessex monasteries. He founded Muchelney Abbey in Somerset for example. He was also an avid collector of objects and sent exploreres out far and wide to acquire them across Europe.

He died on 27th October AD 939 and was buried at his favourite Abbey of Malmesbury. He was succeeded by his half-brother Edmund.

The Falklands War

2008-09-09T23:22:00.004+01:00

In 1982, the dictatorship which ruled Argentina was at its rock bottom in terms of popularity and the Generals were getting desperate. The economy was crumbling. Unemployment soaring, GDP shrinking and inflation set at 160%. The Argentine middle class were starting to band together with the Labour unions to upstage the government. They decided that their last and possibly only chance would be to capture the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands from the British. The Falklands or 'Islas Malvinas' have always been a focus of national unity and this was the idea that the generals had. Bringing them under Argentine rule is, even today, highly important as far as most Argentines are concerned.

Following the purchase of a former whale slaughterhouse in South Georgia by Argentine businessman Constantino Davidoff things began to unfold. There were complaints by South Georgians of an Argentine flag having been hoisted on the island but when this was put down by the British things turned against them even more. On March 23rd the Argentine government sent a Navy transport ship to occupy South Georgia peacefully. The Argentine President - General Galtieri stated that his intention all along had been to take the Falkland Islands and wanted to set about a quick and easy negotiation over sovereignty over the islands. He was most definitely willing to use force though. But, did Argentina really believe she could win a military conflict with world power Britain?

Well, many have underestimated Argentine military strength. They had a sizeable navy with surface, air and underwater capabilities. She also had an impressive air force with more than 220 planes and missiles. Geographically, Argentina had a huge advantage as well, being just 400 miles away. Britain was more than 8,000 miles away.

On April 2nd 1982, the Argentines invaded. A small detachment of Royal Marines on the islands put up a brave fight but were severely outmatched and Governor Rex Hunt told them to lay down their arms. They were all flown to Montevideo. On April 3rd the South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia were formally seized as well. The UN called for an immediate withdrawal by Argentina but they showed no signs of doing so. From March to April, the Argentines had been sending thousands of young, inexperienced conscripts to the islands amounting to more than 10,000.

On April 25th the British retook South Georgia and disabled the Argentine submarine the 'Santa Fe'. Meanwhile, the main British task force was 8,000 miles away, about to leave for Ascension Island. On April 30th the US government declared its support for Britain and issued trade sanctions against Argentina. On May 1st, Vulcan and Harrier aircraft attacked Argentine camps at Port Stanley. May 2nd brought about a peace proposal presented by the President of Peru. However this was the day that the infamous 'Belgrano' was sunk and the Argentines refused the Treaty. On 4th the Argentines were able to shoot and sink the British destroyer HMS Sheffield. The UN got involved but Britain rejected their peace proposal on May 18th.

After an embittered and bloody conflict, the British finally retook Port Stanley on June 14th 1982. The Argentine commander there, Mario Menendez, agreed to a ceasefire. On June 20th the British formally declared an end to hostilities upon taking the South Sandwich islands.

From start to finish war was never actually declared and yet the conflict lasted for 72 days, claiming nearly 1000 lives (236 British and 655 Argentine), many of them innocent, Argentine conscripts. It had cost at least $2 billion. From a political point of view the war helped to bring about the the reelection of Margaret Thatcher in Britain, who had been losing popularity, and also the downfall of Galtieri, who was quick to resign following the failed conflict. This helped to pave the path for democracy in Argentina.

The real version of Braveheart - Robert the Bruce.

2008-09-08T16:55:00.007+01:00

The great Hollywood blockbuster 'Braveheart' was on last night and I feel I want to express Robert Bruce in a more favourable light than the 'traitor' he was portrayed as in the film. I simply feel that they made it, as always, a bit one sided.

Robert Bruce was anything but a traitor. Never on any occasion did Bruce betray Wallace, since in actual fact, Wallace's support lay with the restoration of John Baliol as King, Bruce's rival claimant to the Scottish throne. Bruce was a man of outstanding bravery and courage, who with the aid of amazing tactics and pure perseverance, led the Scots through 30 years of war to win their longed-for freedom.

Between 1290 and 1292 there was a bitter dispute between the claimants to the Scottish throne over who should be King. Edward I of England was asked to arbitrate and he chose the weaker John Baliol (not surprisingly as he was a far weaker and more easily lead character than Bruce). In 1296 Bruce and his family supported Edward in his invasion of Scotland. This led to Scotland being ruled as a province of England. Bruce then supported William Wallace in his uprising against the English. When Wallace was defeated, Bruce kept his lands and became the 'Guardian of Scotland. Following stabbing his rival to the throne, his outlawing from England and excommunication by the Pope, Bruce was eventually crowned King of Scotland on the 27th March 1306 at Scone. The following year, Bruce was deposed by Edward's army and was forced to flee to the island off the coast of Antrim (in modern day N. Ireland).

However, he returned to Scotland and began to pick up support and waged war through a series of raids and then battles. One of the most notable of these was the Battle of Bannockburn in June 1314, where he defeated a much larger English army under Edward II. This led to the Scottish throne becoming independent once again. In the year 1318 Bruce was able to capture the English city of Berwick and in 1324 he received Papal recognition as King of an independent Scotland. He renewed the alliance with the French should they be attacked by the English and it finally looked like Scotland was playing with the trump cards. The English deposed Edward II in 1327 and replaced him with his son who made peace with Scotland.

Bruce died on the 7th June 1329and was buried at Dunfermline. His heart lies at Melrose Abbey.

A biography of...Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

2008-09-07T09:38:00.004+01:00

Possibly one of the most memorable historical names Christopher Columbus is a figure whose story has been recounted many many times through the years. We are taught about him when we are very young and most of us know the very basic facts of his setting off for China but in fact discovering America, but how much do we really know of this man?

He was born in Genoa between August and October 1451 (we cannot be completely sure of the month). His father was a merchant as well as a weaver. Columbus was always looking further ahead and, as a teenager, was continually thinking about undiscovered lands. This meant that in his teenage years he traveled extensively, eventually making Portugal his home. While here, he attempted to get royal patronage for a journey westward to the Orient. However, this was turned down. He tried for the same thing in both France and then Britain but was also rejected. Columbus went to Spain, desperate to secure backing for his project. After some thought, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella decided to give Columbus the financial backing he required and he set off across the Atlantic on the 3rd August 1492. With him he took a fleet of three ships - the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Niña.

They sailed across an ever unforgiving Atlantic ocean for 10 weeks but then...land was sighted. Had they discovered the westward passage to China that they had been looking for? On the 12th October, Columbus and his men set foot on what became known as the Bahamas, the first Europeans ever to do so. Seriously believing that they were in the 'Indies' they gave the natives the name of 'Indians'. Initially there was a mutual respect between the settlers and the natives but European disease as well as weapon soon devestated the native populations. Columbus landed on a number of other islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba and he returned to Spain in triumph. He was made 'Admiral of the Seven Seas' and 'Viceroy of the Indies' within a few months.

In 1493 he set off on a second expedition and discovered much more territory. However, he never actually found the East Asian lands he had been looking for. Some back home began to dispute whether Columbus had in fact found the Orient or whether it was a completely 'new world'. He endeavoured two further journeys following the second, but suffered humiliation on the way. He was accused of complete and utter mismanagement of his crew and this hurt him emotionally.

Columbus died on the 20th May 1506, a very wealthy but disappointed man.

The making of the United Kingdom

2008-09-06T10:32:00.006+01:00

Even today there are remarkable differences between each constituent state of the UK. Each member has largely kept up its traditions and therefore kept a degree of its individuality, but how is it that 4 nations that could be judged to be emphatically different, came together under one single banner?

England has for long been the largest and most powerful nation within the UK. She was often at war in the middle ages and beyond either defending her own shores or being provocative overseas. There were of course also an almost constant barrage of raids that she had to put up with from the Celtic British nations both to the North and West of the border. She decided that this front had to be dealt with.

Wales had been conquered by England in the 13th Century. However, there were still rebellions mostly being led by the English Marcher Lords who controlled half of the land. In 1536 Wales was formally merged with England under the Act of Union initiated by Henry VIII. The Marcher Lordships were abolished and English law was extended to cover Wales as well.

The next wave would take place in 1603 upon the death of Elizabeth I when James VI of Scotland became James I of England. However, despite the business of having a shared monarch, England and Scotland remained entirely different in terms of language, traditions and Parliaments. It was only in 1707 that they were formally linked under the Act of Union 1707 and the first Union flag was created. The Union is said to have mainly come about due to England's fears that Scotland would band together with France to replace the new King George with James the son of James II.

The History of Ireland under Britain is one of blood, toil, tears and sweat. Control had actually been claimed by Henry VII in the 15th Century but it was not actually until the 17th Century that the land had almost completely been taken by English and Scottish settlers. The last of the rebellions was curtailed in 1690 and power of an overwhelmingly Catholic nation now lay in the hands of the Protestants. In 1801 the flag of St Patrick was added to the Union Flag. Of course, we have seen the results of a forced settlement in Ireland over the 20th Century. In 1922 Ireland broke in two with 6 Ulster counties remaining a part of the UK while the rest broke away into an independent Eire.

The Flag itself was designed as a symbol of unity between the four nations. Each country is represented in the flag with its own individual emblem merging into the others. it is sometimes known as the Union 'Jack' when it is flying on a ship.

With a smattering of new indepedence parties such as the SNP in Scotland and Plaid in Wales we don't really know how much longer the Union flag has in control. There could also be added pressure of a master multi-national merge with a possible EU superstate. However, these outcomes are as yet fantasy and, for the meantime at least, the United Kingdom stands steadfast.